Zen and the Japanese
Garden
Of all the forces that have gone into the creation of the
Japanese garden tradition one of the most potent is the influence of Zen
Buddhism. It has profoundly shaped both the gardens and also the manner in
which they are perceived. For many people what constitutes a Japanese garden
(sparse planting, raked gravel and minimalistic stone arrangements) is actually
some version of garden themes as developed in two great centres of the Zen in
Japan, Kamakura and Kyõto. The influence of these gardens has spread world
wide, and examples can be found today on every continent of the globe.
 |
| Ryoan-ji, Kyoto. |
Zen, (Chan, in
Chinese, 禪) was introduced in China around AD 620 from India by the itinerant monk,
Bodhidarma. In China, Buddhism came under the influence of the local
philosophical traditions of Taoism and Confucianism, both of which had been
long established there, and influenced the language of transmission as well as
the organization of its institutions. A characteristic of Zen is that it tends
to disregard reliance on scriptural transmission of ideas; rather it approaches
the notion of transmission as a direct process from teacher to student. Ritual forms can serve to create a distance or separation
between the individual and his experiential environment. Zen places a greater emphasis on the relative
importance of action over words. It regards its approach as engaging directly with
the true nature of mind, unhindered by ritual or doctrinal interpretation. Zen
is personal and subjective; it seeks to connect the individual directly with
the macrocosmic universe. Overcoming dualistic perception of one’s world is a
core Zen concern. In the transmission of
Zen teaching the master points the way to a student, it is then up to the
student to breakthrough habitual patterns of perception to achieve the goal of
enlightenment (satori).
Zen in
Japan essentially revolves around two schools or approaches, Rinzai (臨済) and Soto (曹洞). Rinzai was introduced into Japan by the
monk Eisai (1141-1215) during the Kamakura period (1185–1333), and slightly
later in the same era a student of Eisai, Dõgen (1200-1253) who travelled to China to study
is credited with returning to found the Soto
School. The differences between the two schools are slight, and depend on
variations in approach; for example in Rinzai,
there is the use of koans
(rhetorical, and sometimes seemingly nonsensical), questions that are intended
to shake the student out of intellectualism. Soto does not use koan,
and is more strongly focused on the relationship between student and teacher to
gradually bring the student towards enlightenment. Rinzai favours a ‘sudden’ breakthrough to enlightenment (satori); in both schools meditation (zazen) is of paramount importance to
spiritual practice. Zen was able to begin to gain a foothold in the national
consciousness through its appeal to the samurai
or warrior classes that it gained political ascendency in Japan from the 12th
century onwards. They saw in its appeal to direct action a resonance to their
own outlook on life; ‘live by the sword, die by the sword’.
The rise of the samurai,
as a political force on the national stage, challenging and then superseding
the entrenched power bases of the aristocratic families whom had for centuries
ruled Japan, was a evolutionary force, one that built on an earlier models. The
samurai class were keen to bring
their own identity, but also sought to emulate many of the cultural ambitions
of the aristocrats that they had overthrown. The adoption and promotion of Zen
Buddhism was one means by which they could both seek to impose their own
political and moral codes on society, yet also retain a degree of continuity
with the past.
One of the prime movers in this transition was the Ashikaga
family lead by Ashikaga Takauji, who in 1336 after a protacted struggle
proclaimed himself shogun, or
‘supreme ruler’, this initiated the Muromachi
cultural period (1337-1573). Until this time Zen culture had been
principally centred in the city of Kamakura with only a foothold in the capital
Kyõto. With the ascendency of the Ashikaga family, Zen became established in
the centre of political and cultural life of the nation. During the Muromachi era Zen Buddhism developed its
own uniquely Japanese flavour and flowered as a major cultural force in
Japanese society, due to the adoption of its ontological view by many of the
ruling elite.
Zen temple complexes in Japan were laid out after the architectural
model of such temples in China, and it is often referred to as garan (伽藍). The principal structures aligned on a
north-south axis feature at its core the Abbot’s quarters or hõjõ, around
which have developed a series of smaller sub-temples known as tatchū (塔頭)[1]. These tatchū became centres of
cultural life depending on the inclination of the monk who resided there. They
were a meeting place for the study of poetry, paintings, as well as the
practice of tea and philosophical debate. Many of the tatchū were to
have gardens developed principally on the south side (known as the ‘public
face’ of the temple), the reception rooms overlook a courtyard space known as yūniwa(夢庭 ). It is in
this formal space that many gardens have been created, a great many of which
are in the karesansui style so
associated with Zen temples. To the north side of the main building are found
the living and study quarters of the monks, and here too small gardens can also
be found. Given the modular nature of Japanese architecture where individual
buildings are interconnected by roofed corridors, there can often be several
spaces that lend themselves to gardens. Given the close association between Zen
and tea culture (cha no yū,茶の湯) one of these garden spaces will likely be
given over to a tea garden (chaniwa, 茶庭 ), with its
stepping stone paths and minimal evergreen planting.
 |
| Ashikaga Takauji |
 |
| Korin-in, Kyoto |
In Zen
temples, gardens are of clearly of importance in the context of the overall
architectural layout. In these institutions there developed a particular style
of garden that was to influence the garden tradition of Japan as a whole, and
it is this style that has, in particular, come to be so closely associated with
the global image of Japanese gardens in the late 20th and 21st
centuries. This is the ‘dry landscape garden’, or karesansui niwa (枯山水庭). Perhaps the most famous of these
gardens is the garden of the abbot’s quarters at the sub temple Ryõan-ji
in Kyõto, which is
familiar from many tourist brochures and garden images of Japan.
This garden receives thousands of visitors every week who come to see and
experience one of the greatest examples of garden as art to be created. This
powerful work has intrigued and puzzled literally millions since it was first
created. To more fully understand this work, and others like it we need to look
more closely at the relationship between Zen and the natural landscape
environment, and also to see how Zen monks expressed themselves through the
medium of art. Karesansui gardens are
an extension of the Zen perception of both landscape and art, and in
understanding that filter one can begin to approach the essence of Zen teaching
itself.
 |
| Ryoan-ji, Kyoto. Detail |
[1] The principal
buildings are; on the north south axis: main gate (sanmon三門 or 山門), zendõ禅堂or the meditation hall), lecture hall (hatto
法堂), the abbots
quarters (hõjõ 方丈). On an east-west alignment are;
the monks bathhouse (yokushitsu 浴室) and sutra depository (kyõzõ 経蔵)
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